A witness can testify directly that “After I heard the shot, I made a phone call” or can imply making the call through the indirect statement that “After I heard the shot, I went to the telephone.” A witness can testify directly that “I rang the burglar alarm” or can imply ringing the alarm through the indirect statement that “I ran up to the burglar alarm.” The actions of phone calling and alarm ringing are affirmed in the direct testimony, and only implied in the indirect testimony. Harris and colleagues (1978) studied the effects of direct and indirect statements in courtroom testimony, and found that…